Language Specification

In this chapter we will learn about

  • Language keywords

  • Language Functions

  • Compiler Errors

  • Runtime Errors

  • Environment Errors

  • Language Grammar

  • Virtual Machine (VM) Instructions

Language Keywords

Keywords Count : 49

  • again

  • and

  • but

  • bye

  • call

  • case

  • catch

  • changeringkeyword

  • changeringoperator

  • class

  • def

  • do

  • done

  • else

  • elseif

  • end

  • exit

  • for

  • from

  • func

  • get

  • give

  • if

  • import

  • in

  • load

  • loadsyntax

  • loop

  • new

  • next

  • not

  • off

  • ok

  • on

  • or

  • other

  • package

  • private

  • put

  • return

  • see

  • step

  • switch

  • to

  • try

  • while

  • endfunc

  • endclass

  • endpackage

Language Functions

Functions Count : 238

acos()
add()
addattribute()
adddays()
addmethod()
addsublistsbyfastcopy()
addsublistsbymove()
ascii()
asin()
assert()
atan()
atan2()
attributes()
binarysearch()
bytes2double()
bytes2float()
bytes2int()
callgarbagecollector()
callgc()
ceil()
cfunctions()
char()
chdir()
checkoverflow()
classes()
classname()
clearerr()
clock()
clockspersecond()
closelib()
copy()
cos()
cosh()
currentdir()
date()
dec()
decimals()
del()
diffdays()
dir()
direxists()
double2bytes()
eval()
exefilename()
exefolder()
exp()
fabs()
fclose()
feof()
ferror()
fexists()
fflush()
fgetc()
fgetpos()
fgets()
filename()
find()
float2bytes()
floor()
fopen()
fputc()
fputs()
fread()
freopen()
fseek()
fsetpos()
ftell()
functions()
fwrite()
getarch()
getattribute()
getchar()
getpathtype()
getpointer()
getptr()
globals()
hex()
hex2str()
input()
insert()
int2bytes()
intvalue()
isalnum()
isalpha()
isandroid()
isattribute()
iscfunction()
isclass()
iscntrl()
isdigit()
isfreebsd()
isfunction()
isglobal()
isgraph()
islinux()
islist()
islocal()
islower()
ismacosx()
ismethod()
ismsdos()
isnull()
isnumber()
isobject()
ispackage()
ispackageclass()
ispointer()
isprint()
isprivateattribute()
isprivatemethod()
ispunct()
isspace()
isstring()
isunix()
isupper()
iswindows()
iswindows64()
isxdigit()
left()
len()
lines()
list()
list2str()
loadlib()
locals()
log()
log10()
lower()
max()
memcpy()
memorycopy()
mergemethods()
methods()
min()
murmur3hash()
newlist()
nofprocessors()
nullpointer()
nullptr()
number()
obj2ptr()
object2pointer()
objectid()
packageclasses()
packagename()
packages()
perror()
pointer2object()
pointer2string()
pointercompare()
pow()
prevfilename()
ptr2obj()
ptr2str()
ptrcmp()
raise()
random()
randomize()
read()
remove()
rename()
reverse()
rewind()
right()
ring_give()
ring_see()
ring_state_delete()
ring_state_filetokens()
ring_state_findvar()
ring_state_init()
ring_state_main()
ring_state_mainfile()
ring_state_new()
ring_state_newvar()
ring_state_runcode()
ring_state_runfile()
ring_state_runobjectfile()
ring_state_scannererror()
ring_state_setvar()
ring_state_stringtokens()
ringvm_callfunc()
ringvm_calllist()
ringvm_cfunctionslist()
ringvm_classeslist()
ringvm_evalinscope()
ringvm_fileslist()
ringvm_functionslist()
ringvm_genarray()
ringvm_give()
ringvm_hideerrormsg()
ringvm_info()
ringvm_memorylist()
ringvm_packageslist()
ringvm_passerror()
ringvm_scopescount()
ringvm_see()
ringvm_settrace()
ringvm_tracedata()
ringvm_traceevent()
ringvm_tracefunc()
setattribute()
setpointer()
setptr()
shutdown()
sin()
sinh()
sort()
space()
sqrt()
srandom()
str2hex()
str2hexcstyle()
str2list()
strcmp()
string()
substr()
swap()
sysget()
sysset()
system()
sysunset()
tan()
tanh()
tempfile()
tempname()
time()
timelist()
trim()
type()
ungetc()
unsigned()
upper()
uptime()
variablepointer()
varptr()
version()
windowsnl()
write()

Compiler Errors

  • Error (C1) : Error in parameters list, expected identifier

  • Error (C2) : Error in class name

  • Error (C3) : Unclosed control structure, ‘ok’ is missing

  • Error (C4) : Unclosed control structure, ‘end’ is missing

  • Error (C5) : Unclosed control structure, next is missing

  • Error (C6) : Error in function name

  • Error (C7) : Error in list items

  • Error (C8) : Parentheses ‘)’ is missing

  • Error (C9) : Brackets ‘]’ is missing

  • Error (C10) : Error in parent class name

  • Error (C11) : Error in expression operator

  • Error (C12) : No class definition

  • Error (C13) : Error in variable name

  • Error (C14) : Try/Catch miss the Catch keyword!

  • Error (C15) : Try/Catch miss the Done keyword!

  • Error (C16) : Error in Switch statement expression!

  • Error (C17) : Switch statement without OFF

  • Error (C18) : Missing closing brace for the block opened!

  • Error (C19) : Numeric Overflow!

  • Error (C20) : Error in package name

  • Error (C21) : Unclosed control structure, ‘again’ is missing

  • Error (C22) : Function redefinition, function is already defined!

  • Error (C23) : Using ‘(‘ after number!

  • Error (C24) : The parent class name is identical to the subclass name

  • Error (C25) : Trying to access the self reference after the object name

  • Error (C26) : Class redefinition, class is already defined!

  • Error (S1) : Literal not closed!

  • Warning (W1) : Duplication in file name

  • Warning (W2) : The Compiler command ChangeRingKeyword requires two words as parameters

  • Warning (W3) : Compiler command ChangeRingKeyword - Keyword not found !

  • Warning (W4) : The Compiler command ChangeRingOperator requires two words as parameters

  • Warning (W5) : Compiler command ChangeRingOperator - Operator not found !

  • Warning (W6) : Using the EXIT command outside loop!”

  • Warning (W7) : Using the LOOP command outside loop!”

Runtime Errors

  • Error (R1) : Can’t divide by zero !

  • Error (R2) : Array Access (Index out of range) !

  • Error (R3) : Calling Function without definition !

  • Error (R4) : Stack Overflow !

  • Error (R5) : Can’t access the list item, Object is not list !

  • Error (R6) : Variable is required

  • Error (R7) : Can’t assign to a string letter more than one character

  • Error (R8) : Variable is not a string

  • Error (R9) : Using exit command outside loops

  • Error (R10) : Using exit command with number outside the range

  • Error (R11) : Error in class name, class not found!

  • Error (R12) : Error in property name, property not found!

  • Error (R13) : Object is required

  • Error (R14) : Calling Method without definition !

  • Error (R15) : Error in parent class name, class not found!

  • Error (R16) : Using braces to access unknown object !

  • Error (R17) : Error, using ‘Super’ without parent class!

  • Error (R18) : Numeric Overflow!

  • Error (R19) : Calling function with less number of parameters!

  • Error (R20) : Calling function with extra number of parameters!

  • Error (R21) : Using operator with values of incorrect type

  • Error (R22) : Using loop command outside loops

  • Error (R23) : Using loop command with number outside the range

  • Error (R24) : Using uninitialized variable

  • Error (R25) : Error in package name, Package not found!

  • Error (R26) : Calling private method from outside the class

  • Error (R27) : Using private attribute from outside the class

  • Error (R28) : Using bad data type as step value

  • Error (R29) : Using bad data type in for loop

  • Error (R30) : Parent class name is identical to child class name

  • Error (R31) : Trying to destroy the object using the self reference

  • Error (R32) : The CALL command expect a variable contains string!

  • Error (R33) : Bad decimals number (correct range >= 0 and <= 90)

  • Error (R34) : Variable is required for the assignment operation

  • Error (R35) : Can’t create/open the file!

  • Error (R36) : The column number is not correct! It’s greater than the number of columns in the list

  • Error (R37) : Sorry, The command is not supported in this context

  • Error (R38) : Runtime Error in loading the dynamic library!

  • Error (R39) : Error occurred creating unique filename

  • Error (R40) : Numeric underflow!

  • Error (R41) : Invalid numeric string

Environment Errors

  • Error (E1) : Caught SegFault

  • Error (E2) : Out of Memory

  • Error (E3) : Deleting scope while no scope!

  • Error (E4) : Long VM Instruction!

  • Error (E5) : The file type is not correct - the VM expect a ring object file

  • Error (E6) : The Ring Object File version is not correct!

  • Error (E7) : Internal error in using sscanf() function!

  • Error (E8) : Internal error in using fscanf() function!

Language Grammar

Program —> {statement}

Statement —> ‘package’ <Identifier> { ‘.’ <Identifier> } [‘{‘ {statement} ‘}’] [‘end’|’endpackage’]

Statement —> ‘class’ <Identifier> [ ‘from’|’:’|’<’ <Identifier> ] [‘{‘ {statement} ‘}’][‘end’|’endclass’]

Statement —> ‘func’|’def’ <Identifier> [ParaList] [‘{‘ {statement} ‘}’][‘end’|’endfunc’]

Statement —> ‘import’ <Identifier> { ‘.’ <Identifier> }

Statement —> ‘private’

Statement —> ‘load’ [‘package’|’again’] <Literal>

Statement —> ‘loadsyntax’ <Literal>

Statement —> ‘changeringkeyword’ <OldKeyword> <NewKeyword>

Statement —> ‘changeringoperator’ <OldOperator> <NewOperator>

Statement —> ‘see’|’put’ <Expr>

Statement —> ‘give’|’get’ <Identifier>

Statement —> ‘if’ <Expr> [‘{‘] {statement} [ {‘but’|’elseif’ <Expr> {Statement} } ] [‘else’ {Statement} ] ‘ok’|’end’|’}’

Statement —> ‘Switch’ <Expr> [‘{‘] { ‘on’|’case’ <Expr> {statement} } [‘other’ {Statement} ] ‘off’|’end’|’}’

Statement —> ‘for’ <Identifier> ‘=’ <Expr> ‘to’ <Expr> [ ‘step’ <Expr> ] [‘{‘] {Statement} ‘next’|’end’|’}’

Statement —> ‘for’ <Identifier> ‘in’ <Expr> [ ‘step’ <Expr> ] [‘{‘] {statement} ‘next’|’end’|’}’

Statement —> ‘while’ <Expr> [‘{‘] {statement} ‘end’|’}’

Statement —> ‘do’ {statement} ‘again’ <Expr>

Statement —> ‘try’ {statement} [‘{‘] ‘catch’ {statement} ‘done’|’end’|’}’

Statement —> ‘return’ <Expr>

Statement —> ‘bye’

Statement —> ‘exit’

Statement —> ‘loop’

Statement —> <Expr>

Statement —> epslion

ParaList —> epslion

ParaList —> [‘(‘] <Identifier> [{ ‘,’ <Identifier> }] [‘)’]

Expr —> <LogicNot> [{ ‘and’|’or’ <LogicNot> }]

LogicNot –> [‘not’] <EqualOrNot>

EqualOrNot –> [ ‘=’|’!=’ ] <Compare>

Compare —> <BitOrXor> [ { ‘<’ | ‘>’ | ‘<=’ | ‘>=’ <BitOrXor> } ]

BitOrXor —> <BitAnd> [ { ‘|’ | ‘^’ <BitAnd> } ]

BitAnd —> <BitShift> [ { ‘&’ <BitShift> } ]

BitShift —> <Arithmetic> [ { ‘<<’ | ‘>>’ <Arithmetic> } ]

Arithmetic —> <Term> [ { ‘+’ | ‘-‘ <Term> } ]

Term —> <Range> [ { ‘*’ | ‘/’ | ‘%’ <Range> } ]

Range —> <Factor> [ ‘:’ <Factor> ]

Factor —> <Identifier> [ {Mixer} ] [ ‘=’ <Expr> ]

Factor —> <Number>

Factor —> <Literal>

Factor —> ‘:’ <Identifier>

Factor —> ‘-‘ <Factor>

Factor —> ‘(‘ <Expr> ‘)’

Factor —> <List>

Factor —> ‘new’ <Identifier>

Factor —> <AnonymousFunction>

Factor —> ‘call’ <identifier> { ‘.’ <Identifier> } ‘(‘ <Parameters> ‘)’

List —> ‘[‘ [ <Expr> { ‘,’ <Expr> } ] ‘]’

Mixer —> { ‘.’ <Identifier> }

Mixer —> ‘[‘ <Expr> ‘]’

Mixer —> ‘(‘ [ <Expr> [ { ‘,’ <Expr> }] ] ‘)’

Mixer —> ‘{‘ {Statement} ‘}’

AnonymousFunction —> ‘func’|’def’| [<ParaList>] ‘{‘ {Statement} ‘}’

Virtual Machine (VM) Instructions

Definitions :-

  • VM : Virtual Machine

  • Stack : VM Stack

  • IR : Instruction Register

  • PC : Program Counter

  • VP : Variable Pointer

  • Stack[nSize] : Last Item in the Stack (Last In - First Out)

  • VV : Variable Value (We have a Pointer to a variable, And we access this variable value)

(Stack and Variables)

Operation

Description

ICO_PUSHC

Add string from the IR to the stack

ICO_PUSHN

Add number from the IR to the stack

ICO_PUSHV

Replace VP in the stack[nSize] with the variable value

ICO_LOADADDRESS

Read variable name from the IR, push VP to the stack

ICO_ASSIGNMENT

Stack[nSize-1] VV = Stack[nSize] VV , POP Stack[nSize]

ICO_INC

Increment Number in Stack[nSize] by 1

ICO_LOADAPUSHV

The same as ICO_LOADADDRESS then ICO_PUSHV

ICO_NEWLINE

Store new line number (debug info)

ICO_FREESTACK

Remove all items from the stack , nSize = 0

ICO_FILENAME

Store the source code file name (debug info)

ICO_FREELOADASCOPE

Free the Scope List of the current Expression

(Jump)

Operation

Description

ICO_JUMP

Set PC to new value from the IR

ICO_JUMPZERO

If Stack[nSize] is a number = 0 then Set PC to new value from the IR

ICO_JUMPFOR

End of for loop

ICO_JUMPONE

If Stack[nSize] is a number = 1 then Set PC to new value from the IR

ICO_JUMPZERO2

As ICO_JUMPZERO but add 1 to the stack (required for many ‘AND’ conditions)

ICO_JUMPONE2

As ICO_JUMPONE but add 1 to the stack (required for many ‘OR’ conditions)

(Compare)

Operation

Description

ICO_LESSEQUAL

If stack[nSize-1] <= stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize], set Stack[nSize-1] = 1 else set Stack[nSize-1] = 0

ICO_EQUAL

If stack[nSize-1] = stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize], set Stack[nSize-1] = 1 else set Stack[nSize-1] = 0

ICO_LESS

If stack[nSize-1] < stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize], set Stack[nSize-1] = 1 else set Stack[nSize-1] = 0

ICO_GREATER

If stack[nSize-1] > stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize], set Stack[nSize-1] = 1 else set Stack[nSize-1] = 0

ICO_GREATEREQUAL

If stack[nSize-1] >= stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize], set Stack[nSize-1] = 1 else set Stack[nSize-1] = 0

ICO_NOTEQUAL

If stack[nSize-1] != stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize], set Stack[nSize-1] = 1 else set Stack[nSize-1] = 0

(Math)

Operation

Description

ICO_SUM

Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] + Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]

ICO_SUB

Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] - Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]

ICO_MUL

Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] * Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]

ICO_DIV

Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] / Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]

ICO_MOD

Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] % Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]

ICO_NEG

Stack[nSize] = - Stack[nSize-1]

ICO_PLUSPLUS

Stack[nSize] = Stack[nSize] + 1

ICO_MINUSMINUS

Stack[nSize] = Stack[nSize] - 1

(Logic)

Operation

Description

ICO_AND

Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] && Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]

ICO_OR

Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] || Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]

ICO_NOT

Stack[nSize] = ! Stack[nSize]

(Lists)

Operation

Description

ICO_LISTSTART

Start New List in Temp. Memory

ICO_LISTITEM

Add List Item

ICO_LISTEND

End List

ICO_LOADINDEXADDRESS

Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] VV [ Stack[nSize] ] , POP stack[nSize]

(Functions)

Operation

Description

ICO_LOADFUNC

Find function

ICO_CALL

Call function

ICO_RETURN

Return from function

ICO_RETNULL

Return NULL from function

ICO_RETFROMEVAL

Return after eval()

ICO_RETITEMREF

Return the list item reference - not the value

ICO_NEWFUNC

Start new function

ICO_BLOCKFLAG

Flag to determine where to jump later (after ICO_RETURN)

ICO_FUNCEXE

Start executing function

ICO_ENDFUNCEXE

End function execution

ICO_ANONYMOUS

Anonymous function

ICO_FREETEMPLISTS

Delete temp. lists

(User Interface)

Operation

Description

ICO_PRINT

Print value to the standard output

ICO_GIVE

Get input from the keyboard

(End Program/Loop)

Operation

Description

ICO_BYE

End execution of VM

ICO_EXITMARK

Place to exit to from a loop

ICO_POPEXITMARK

Remove exit mark

ICO_EXIT

Break from one loop or more

ICO_LOOP

Continue to next loop

(For Better Performance)

Operation

Description

ICO_PUSHP

Push pointer to the stack

ICO_INCP

Increment variable value using pointer

ICO_PUSHPV

Push value of variable using variable pointer

ICO_INCJUMP

Increment then jump

ICO_INCPJUMP

Increment using pointer then jump

ICO_JUMPVARLENUM

Jump if variable value is <= numeric value

ICO_JUMPVARPLENUM

Jump if variable value (using pointer) <= numeric value

ICO_LOADFUNCP

Push function pointer

ICO_PUSHPLOCAL

Push pointer to local variable

ICO_INCLPJUMP

Increment value using pointer to local variable then jump

ICO_JUMPVARLPLENUM

Jump if the variable value (using pointer) <= numeric value

ICO_INCPJUMPSTEP1

Increment value using variable pointer then jump (for loop step = 1)

ICO_JUMPVARPLENUMSTEP1

Increment value using variable pointer then jump (for loop step = 1)

(Try-Catch-Done)

Operation

Description

ICO_TRY

Start try region

ICO_DONE

End try region

(Duplicate and Range)

Operation

Description

ICO_DUPLICATE

Duplicate stack value

ICO_RANGE

Create list from value to value

(OOP)

Operation

Description

ICO_NEWOBJ

Create new object, get class name from the IR, push object pointer to the stack.

ICO_SETSCOPE

Called after creating new object, set the active scope to be the object scope.

ICO_LOADSUBADDRESS

Get object attribute, push the pointer to the stack.

ICO_LOADMETHOD

Find object method

ICO_AFTERCALLMETHOD

Used after calling a method - normal case

ICO_AFTERCALLMETHOD2

Used after calling a method - second case

ICO_NEWCLASS

Start new class region

ICO_BRACESTART

Open brace

ICO_BRACEEND

End brace

ICO_IMPORT

Import package

ICO_PRIVATE

start private attributes region

ICO_SETPROPERTY

set attribute value - check for setter.

ICO_CALLCLASSINIT

call class init() method.

(Other)

Operation

Description

ICO_SETREFERENCE

Copy by reference

ICO_KILLREFERENCE

Remove reference

ICO_ASSIGNMENTPOINTER

Determine the left side variable

ICO_BEFOREEQUAL

Determine operators like += , -= , … etc

(Bitwise Operators)

Operation

Description

ICO_BITAND

Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] & Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]

ICO_BITOR

Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] | Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]

ICO_BITXOR

Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] ^ Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]

ICO_BITNOT

Stack[nSize] = ! Stack[nSize]

ICO_BITSHL

Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] << Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]

ICO_BITSHR

Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] >> Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]

(For Step)

Operation

Description

ICO_STEPNUMBER

Determine step number in for loop

ICO_POPSTEP

POP step number from steps stack

ICO_LOADAFIRST

Load the first address of variable name

(Custom Global Scope)

Operation

Description

ICO_NEWGLOBALSCOPE

Start new custom global scope - used by ‘load package’ command

ICO_ENDGLOBALSCOPE

End of custom global scope - used by ‘load package’ command

ICO_SETGLOBALSCOPE

Set the current global scope