Language Specification¶

In this chapter we will learn about

Language keywords
Language Functions
Compiler Errors
Runtime Errors
Environment Errors
Language Grammar
Virtual Machine (VM) Instructions

Language Keywords¶

Keywords Count : 49

again
and
but
bye
call
case
catch
changeringkeyword
changeringoperator
class
def
do
done
else
elseif
end
exit
for
from
func
get
give
if
import
in
load
loadsyntax
loop
new
next
not
off
ok
on
or
other
package
private
put
return
see
step
switch
to
try
while
endfunc
endclass
endpackage

Language Functions¶

Functions Count : 238

acos()
add()
addattribute()
adddays()
addmethod()
addsublistsbyfastcopy()
addsublistsbymove()
ascii()
asin()
assert()
atan()
atan2()
attributes()
binarysearch()
bytes2double()
bytes2float()
bytes2int()
callgarbagecollector()
callgc()
ceil()
cfunctions()
char()
chdir()
checkoverflow()
classes()
classname()
clearerr()
clock()
clockspersecond()
closelib()
copy()
cos()
cosh()
currentdir()
date()
dec()
decimals()
del()
diffdays()
dir()
direxists()
double2bytes()
eval()
exefilename()
exefolder()
exp()
fabs()
fclose()
feof()
ferror()
fexists()
fflush()
fgetc()
fgetpos()
fgets()
filename()
find()
float2bytes()
floor()
fopen()
fputc()
fputs()
fread()
freopen()
fseek()
fsetpos()
ftell()
functions()
fwrite()
getarch()
getattribute()
getchar()
getpathtype()
getpointer()
getptr()
globals()
hex()
hex2str()
input()
insert()
int2bytes()
intvalue()
isalnum()
isalpha()
isandroid()
isattribute()
iscfunction()
isclass()
iscntrl()
isdigit()
isfreebsd()
isfunction()
isglobal()
isgraph()
islinux()
islist()
islocal()
islower()
ismacosx()
ismethod()
ismsdos()
isnull()
isnumber()
isobject()
ispackage()
ispackageclass()
ispointer()
isprint()
isprivateattribute()
isprivatemethod()
ispunct()
isspace()
isstring()
isunix()
isupper()
iswindows()
iswindows64()
isxdigit()
left()
len()
lines()
list()
list2str()
loadlib()
locals()
log()
log10()
lower()
max()
memcpy()
memorycopy()
mergemethods()
methods()
min()
murmur3hash()
newlist()
nofprocessors()
nullpointer()
nullptr()
number()
obj2ptr()
object2pointer()
objectid()
packageclasses()
packagename()
packages()
perror()
pointer2object()
pointer2string()
pointercompare()
pow()
prevfilename()
ptr2obj()
ptr2str()
ptrcmp()
raise()
random()
randomize()
read()
remove()
rename()
reverse()
rewind()
right()
ring_give()
ring_see()
ring_state_delete()
ring_state_filetokens()
ring_state_findvar()
ring_state_init()
ring_state_main()
ring_state_mainfile()
ring_state_new()
ring_state_newvar()
ring_state_runcode()
ring_state_runfile()
ring_state_runobjectfile()
ring_state_scannererror()
ring_state_setvar()
ring_state_stringtokens()
ringvm_callfunc()
ringvm_calllist()
ringvm_cfunctionslist()
ringvm_classeslist()
ringvm_evalinscope()
ringvm_fileslist()
ringvm_functionslist()
ringvm_genarray()
ringvm_give()
ringvm_hideerrormsg()
ringvm_info()
ringvm_memorylist()
ringvm_packageslist()
ringvm_passerror()
ringvm_scopescount()
ringvm_see()
ringvm_settrace()
ringvm_tracedata()
ringvm_traceevent()
ringvm_tracefunc()
setattribute()
setpointer()
setptr()
shutdown()
sin()
sinh()
sort()
space()
sqrt()
srandom()
str2hex()
str2hexcstyle()
str2list()
strcmp()
string()
substr()
swap()
sysget()
sysset()
system()
sysunset()
tan()
tanh()
tempfile()
tempname()
time()
timelist()
trim()
type()
ungetc()
unsigned()
upper()
uptime()
variablepointer()
varptr()
version()
windowsnl()
write()

Compiler Errors¶

Error (C1) : Error in parameters list, expected identifier
Error (C2) : Error in class name
Error (C3) : Unclosed control structure, ‘ok’ is missing
Error (C4) : Unclosed control structure, ‘end’ is missing
Error (C5) : Unclosed control structure, next is missing
Error (C6) : Error in function name
Error (C7) : Error in list items
Error (C8) : Parentheses ‘)’ is missing
Error (C9) : Brackets ‘]’ is missing
Error (C10) : Error in parent class name
Error (C11) : Error in expression operator
Error (C12) : No class definition
Error (C13) : Error in variable name
Error (C14) : Try/Catch miss the Catch keyword!
Error (C15) : Try/Catch miss the Done keyword!
Error (C16) : Error in Switch statement expression!
Error (C17) : Switch statement without OFF
Error (C18) : Missing closing brace for the block opened!
Error (C19) : Numeric Overflow!
Error (C20) : Error in package name
Error (C21) : Unclosed control structure, ‘again’ is missing
Error (C22) : Function redefinition, function is already defined!
Error (C23) : Using ‘(‘ after number!
Error (C24) : The parent class name is identical to the subclass name
Error (C25) : Trying to access the self reference after the object name
Error (C26) : Class redefinition, class is already defined!
Error (S1) : Literal not closed!
Warning (W1) : Duplication in file name
Warning (W2) : The Compiler command ChangeRingKeyword requires two words as parameters
Warning (W3) : Compiler command ChangeRingKeyword - Keyword not found !
Warning (W4) : The Compiler command ChangeRingOperator requires two words as parameters
Warning (W5) : Compiler command ChangeRingOperator - Operator not found !
Warning (W6) : Using the EXIT command outside loop!”
Warning (W7) : Using the LOOP command outside loop!”

Runtime Errors¶

Error (R1) : Can’t divide by zero !
Error (R2) : Array Access (Index out of range) !
Error (R3) : Calling Function without definition !
Error (R4) : Stack Overflow !
Error (R5) : Can’t access the list item, Object is not list !
Error (R6) : Variable is required
Error (R7) : Can’t assign to a string letter more than one character
Error (R8) : Variable is not a string
Error (R9) : Using exit command outside loops
Error (R10) : Using exit command with number outside the range
Error (R11) : Error in class name, class not found!
Error (R12) : Error in property name, property not found!
Error (R13) : Object is required
Error (R14) : Calling Method without definition !
Error (R15) : Error in parent class name, class not found!
Error (R16) : Using braces to access unknown object !
Error (R17) : Error, using ‘Super’ without parent class!
Error (R18) : Numeric Overflow!
Error (R19) : Calling function with less number of parameters!
Error (R20) : Calling function with extra number of parameters!
Error (R21) : Using operator with values of incorrect type
Error (R22) : Using loop command outside loops
Error (R23) : Using loop command with number outside the range
Error (R24) : Using uninitialized variable
Error (R25) : Error in package name, Package not found!
Error (R26) : Calling private method from outside the class
Error (R27) : Using private attribute from outside the class
Error (R28) : Using bad data type as step value
Error (R29) : Using bad data type in for loop
Error (R30) : Parent class name is identical to child class name
Error (R31) : Trying to destroy the object using the self reference
Error (R32) : The CALL command expect a variable contains string!
Error (R33) : Bad decimals number (correct range >= 0 and <= 90)
Error (R34) : Variable is required for the assignment operation
Error (R35) : Can’t create/open the file!
Error (R36) : The column number is not correct! It’s greater than the number of columns in the list
Error (R37) : Sorry, The command is not supported in this context
Error (R38) : Runtime Error in loading the dynamic library!
Error (R39) : Error occurred creating unique filename
Error (R40) : Numeric underflow!
Error (R41) : Invalid numeric string

Environment Errors¶

Error (E1) : Caught SegFault
Error (E2) : Out of Memory
Error (E3) : Deleting scope while no scope!
Error (E4) : Long VM Instruction!
Error (E5) : The file type is not correct - the VM expect a ring object file
Error (E6) : The Ring Object File version is not correct!
Error (E7) : Internal error in using sscanf() function!
Error (E8) : Internal error in using fscanf() function!

Language Grammar¶

Program —> {statement}

Statement —> ‘package’ <Identifier> { ‘.’ <Identifier> } [‘{‘ {statement} ‘}’] [‘end’|’endpackage’]

Statement —> ‘class’ <Identifier> [ ‘from’|’:’|’<’ <Identifier> ] [‘{‘ {statement} ‘}’][‘end’|’endclass’]

Statement —> ‘func’|’def’ <Identifier> [ParaList] [‘{‘ {statement} ‘}’][‘end’|’endfunc’]

Statement —> ‘import’ <Identifier> { ‘.’ <Identifier> }

Statement —> ‘private’

Statement —> ‘load’ [‘package’|’again’] <Literal>

Statement —> ‘loadsyntax’ <Literal>

Statement —> ‘changeringkeyword’ <OldKeyword> <NewKeyword>

Statement —> ‘changeringoperator’ <OldOperator> <NewOperator>

Statement —> ‘see’|’put’ <Expr>

Statement —> ‘give’|’get’ <Identifier>

Statement —> ‘if’ <Expr> [‘{‘] {statement} [ {‘but’|’elseif’ <Expr> {Statement} } ] [‘else’ {Statement} ] ‘ok’|’end’|’}’

Statement —> ‘Switch’ <Expr> [‘{‘] { ‘on’|’case’ <Expr> {statement} } [‘other’ {Statement} ] ‘off’|’end’|’}’

Statement —> ‘for’ <Identifier> ‘=’ <Expr> ‘to’ <Expr> [ ‘step’ <Expr> ] [‘{‘] {Statement} ‘next’|’end’|’}’

Statement —> ‘for’ <Identifier> ‘in’ <Expr> [ ‘step’ <Expr> ] [‘{‘] {statement} ‘next’|’end’|’}’

Statement —> ‘while’ <Expr> [‘{‘] {statement} ‘end’|’}’

Statement —> ‘do’ {statement} ‘again’ <Expr>

Statement —> ‘try’ {statement} [‘{‘] ‘catch’ {statement} ‘done’|’end’|’}’

Statement —> ‘return’ <Expr>

Statement —> ‘bye’

Statement —> ‘exit’

Statement —> ‘loop’

Statement —> <Expr>

Statement —> epslion

ParaList —> epslion

ParaList —> [‘(‘] <Identifier> [{ ‘,’ <Identifier> }] [‘)’]

Expr —> <LogicNot> [{ ‘and’|’or’ <LogicNot> }]

LogicNot –> [‘not’] <EqualOrNot>

EqualOrNot –> [ ‘=’|’!=’ ] <Compare>

Compare —> <BitOrXor> [ { ‘<’ | ‘>’ | ‘<=’ | ‘>=’ <BitOrXor> } ]

BitOrXor —> <BitAnd> [ { ‘|’ | ‘^’ <BitAnd> } ]

BitAnd —> <BitShift> [ { ‘&’ <BitShift> } ]

BitShift —> <Arithmetic> [ { ‘<<’ | ‘>>’ <Arithmetic> } ]

Arithmetic —> <Term> [ { ‘+’ | ‘-‘ <Term> } ]

Term —> <Range> [ { ‘*’ | ‘/’ | ‘%’ <Range> } ]

Range —> <Factor> [ ‘:’ <Factor> ]

Factor —> <Identifier> [ {Mixer} ] [ ‘=’ <Expr> ]

Factor —> <Number>

Factor —> <Literal>

Factor —> ‘:’ <Identifier>

Factor —> ‘-‘ <Factor>

Factor —> ‘(‘ <Expr> ‘)’

Factor —> <List>

Factor —> ‘new’ <Identifier>

Factor —> <AnonymousFunction>

Factor —> ‘call’ <identifier> { ‘.’ <Identifier> } ‘(‘ <Parameters> ‘)’

List —> ‘[‘ [ <Expr> { ‘,’ <Expr> } ] ‘]’

Mixer —> { ‘.’ <Identifier> }

Mixer —> ‘[‘ <Expr> ‘]’

Mixer —> ‘(‘ [ <Expr> [ { ‘,’ <Expr> }] ] ‘)’

Mixer —> ‘{‘ {Statement} ‘}’

AnonymousFunction —> ‘func’|’def’| [<ParaList>] ‘{‘ {Statement} ‘}’

Virtual Machine (VM) Instructions¶

Definitions :-

VM : Virtual Machine
Stack : VM Stack
IR : Instruction Register
PC : Program Counter
VP : Variable Pointer
Stack[nSize] : Last Item in the Stack (Last In - First Out)
VV : Variable Value (We have a Pointer to a variable, And we access this variable value)

(Stack and Variables)

Operation	Description
ICO_PUSHC	Add string from the IR to the stack
ICO_PUSHN	Add number from the IR to the stack
ICO_PUSHV	Replace VP in the stack[nSize] with the variable value
ICO_LOADADDRESS	Read variable name from the IR, push VP to the stack
ICO_ASSIGNMENT	Stack[nSize-1] VV = Stack[nSize] VV , POP Stack[nSize]
ICO_INC	Increment Number in Stack[nSize] by 1
ICO_LOADAPUSHV	The same as ICO_LOADADDRESS then ICO_PUSHV
ICO_NEWLINE	Store new line number (debug info)
ICO_FREESTACK	Remove all items from the stack , nSize = 0
ICO_FILENAME	Store the source code file name (debug info)
ICO_FREELOADASCOPE	Free the Scope List of the current Expression

(Jump)

Operation	Description
ICO_JUMP	Set PC to new value from the IR
ICO_JUMPZERO	If Stack[nSize] is a number = 0 then Set PC to new value from the IR
ICO_JUMPFOR	End of for loop
ICO_JUMPONE	If Stack[nSize] is a number = 1 then Set PC to new value from the IR
ICO_JUMPZERO2	As ICO_JUMPZERO but add 1 to the stack (required for many ‘AND’ conditions)
ICO_JUMPONE2	As ICO_JUMPONE but add 1 to the stack (required for many ‘OR’ conditions)

(Compare)

Operation	Description
ICO_LESSEQUAL	If stack[nSize-1] <= stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize], set Stack[nSize-1] = 1 else set Stack[nSize-1] = 0
ICO_EQUAL	If stack[nSize-1] = stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize], set Stack[nSize-1] = 1 else set Stack[nSize-1] = 0
ICO_LESS	If stack[nSize-1] < stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize], set Stack[nSize-1] = 1 else set Stack[nSize-1] = 0
ICO_GREATER	If stack[nSize-1] > stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize], set Stack[nSize-1] = 1 else set Stack[nSize-1] = 0
ICO_GREATEREQUAL	If stack[nSize-1] >= stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize], set Stack[nSize-1] = 1 else set Stack[nSize-1] = 0
ICO_NOTEQUAL	If stack[nSize-1] != stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize], set Stack[nSize-1] = 1 else set Stack[nSize-1] = 0

(Math)

Operation	Description
ICO_SUM	Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] + Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]
ICO_SUB	Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] - Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]
ICO_MUL	Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] * Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]
ICO_DIV	Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] / Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]
ICO_MOD	Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] % Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]
ICO_NEG	Stack[nSize] = - Stack[nSize-1]
ICO_PLUSPLUS	Stack[nSize] = Stack[nSize] + 1
ICO_MINUSMINUS	Stack[nSize] = Stack[nSize] - 1

(Logic)

Operation	Description
ICO_AND	Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] && Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]
ICO_OR	Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] \|\| Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]
ICO_NOT	Stack[nSize] = ! Stack[nSize]

(Lists)

Operation	Description
ICO_LISTSTART	Start New List in Temp. Memory
ICO_LISTITEM	Add List Item
ICO_LISTEND	End List
ICO_LOADINDEXADDRESS	Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] VV [ Stack[nSize] ] , POP stack[nSize]

(Functions)

Operation	Description
ICO_LOADFUNC	Find function
ICO_CALL	Call function
ICO_RETURN	Return from function
ICO_RETNULL	Return NULL from function
ICO_RETFROMEVAL	Return after eval()
ICO_RETITEMREF	Return the list item reference - not the value
ICO_NEWFUNC	Start new function
ICO_BLOCKFLAG	Flag to determine where to jump later (after ICO_RETURN)
ICO_FUNCEXE	Start executing function
ICO_ENDFUNCEXE	End function execution
ICO_ANONYMOUS	Anonymous function
ICO_FREETEMPLISTS	Delete temp. lists

(User Interface)

Operation	Description
ICO_PRINT	Print value to the standard output
ICO_GIVE	Get input from the keyboard

(End Program/Loop)

Operation	Description
ICO_BYE	End execution of VM
ICO_EXITMARK	Place to exit to from a loop
ICO_POPEXITMARK	Remove exit mark
ICO_EXIT	Break from one loop or more
ICO_LOOP	Continue to next loop

(For Better Performance)

Operation	Description
ICO_PUSHP	Push pointer to the stack
ICO_INCP	Increment variable value using pointer
ICO_PUSHPV	Push value of variable using variable pointer
ICO_INCJUMP	Increment then jump
ICO_INCPJUMP	Increment using pointer then jump
ICO_JUMPVARLENUM	Jump if variable value is <= numeric value
ICO_JUMPVARPLENUM	Jump if variable value (using pointer) <= numeric value
ICO_LOADFUNCP	Push function pointer
ICO_PUSHPLOCAL	Push pointer to local variable
ICO_INCLPJUMP	Increment value using pointer to local variable then jump
ICO_JUMPVARLPLENUM	Jump if the variable value (using pointer) <= numeric value
ICO_INCPJUMPSTEP1	Increment value using variable pointer then jump (for loop step = 1)
ICO_JUMPVARPLENUMSTEP1	Increment value using variable pointer then jump (for loop step = 1)

(Try-Catch-Done)

Operation	Description
ICO_TRY	Start try region
ICO_DONE	End try region

(Duplicate and Range)

Operation	Description
ICO_DUPLICATE	Duplicate stack value
ICO_RANGE	Create list from value to value

(OOP)

Operation	Description
ICO_NEWOBJ	Create new object, get class name from the IR, push object pointer to the stack.
ICO_SETSCOPE	Called after creating new object, set the active scope to be the object scope.
ICO_LOADSUBADDRESS	Get object attribute, push the pointer to the stack.
ICO_LOADMETHOD	Find object method
ICO_AFTERCALLMETHOD	Used after calling a method - normal case
ICO_AFTERCALLMETHOD2	Used after calling a method - second case
ICO_NEWCLASS	Start new class region
ICO_BRACESTART	Open brace
ICO_BRACEEND	End brace
ICO_IMPORT	Import package
ICO_PRIVATE	start private attributes region
ICO_SETPROPERTY	set attribute value - check for setter.
ICO_CALLCLASSINIT	call class init() method.

(Other)

Operation	Description
ICO_SETREFERENCE	Copy by reference
ICO_KILLREFERENCE	Remove reference
ICO_ASSIGNMENTPOINTER	Determine the left side variable
ICO_BEFOREEQUAL	Determine operators like += , -= , … etc

(Bitwise Operators)

Operation	Description
ICO_BITAND	Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] & Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]
ICO_BITOR	Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] \| Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]
ICO_BITXOR	Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] ^ Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]
ICO_BITNOT	Stack[nSize] = ! Stack[nSize]
ICO_BITSHL	Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] << Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]
ICO_BITSHR	Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] >> Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]

(For Step)

Operation	Description
ICO_STEPNUMBER	Determine step number in for loop
ICO_POPSTEP	POP step number from steps stack
ICO_LOADAFIRST	Load the first address of variable name

(Custom Global Scope)

Operation	Description
ICO_NEWGLOBALSCOPE	Start new custom global scope - used by ‘load package’ command
ICO_ENDGLOBALSCOPE	End of custom global scope - used by ‘load package’ command
ICO_SETGLOBALSCOPE	Set the current global scope