Language Reference

In this chapter we will learn about

  • Language keywords
  • Language Functions
  • Compiler Errors
  • Runtime Errors
  • Environment Errors
  • Language Grammar
  • Virtual Machine (VM) Instructions

Language Keywords

Keywords Count : 49

  • again
  • and
  • but
  • bye
  • call
  • case
  • catch
  • changeringkeyword
  • changeringoperator
  • class
  • def
  • do
  • done
  • else
  • elseif
  • end
  • exit
  • for
  • from
  • func
  • get
  • give
  • if
  • import
  • in
  • load
  • loadsyntax
  • loop
  • new
  • next
  • not
  • off
  • ok
  • on
  • or
  • other
  • package
  • private
  • put
  • return
  • see
  • step
  • switch
  • to
  • try
  • while
  • endfunc
  • endclass
  • endpackage

Language Functions

Functions Count : 198

len()  add()  del()  sysget()  clock()  lower()
upper()  input()  ascii()  char()  date()  time()
filename()  getchar()  system()  random()  timelist()  adddays()
diffdays()  version()  clockspersecond()  prevfilename()  swap()  shutdown()
isstring()  isnumber()  islist()  type()  isnull()  isobject()
hex()  dec()  number()  string()  str2hex()  hex2str()
str2list()  list2str()  left()  right()  trim()  copy()
substr()  lines()  strcmp()  eval()  raise()  assert()
isalnum()  isalpha()  iscntrl()  isdigit()  isgraph()  islower()
isprint()  ispunct()  isspace()  isupper()  isxdigit()  locals()
globals()  functions()  cfunctions()  islocal()  isglobal()  isfunction()
iscfunction()  packages()  ispackage()  classes()  isclass()  packageclasses()
ispackageclass()  classname()  objectid()  attributes()  methods()  isattribute()
ismethod()  isprivateattribute()  isprivatemethod()
addattribute()  addmethod()  getattribute()
setattribute()  mergemethods()  packagename()  ringvm_fileslist()
ringvm_calllist()  ringvm_memorylist()
ringvm_functionslist()  ringvm_classeslist()  ringvm_packageslist()
ringvm_cfunctionslist()  ringvm_settrace()  ringvm_tracedata()
ringvm_traceevent()  ringvm_tracefunc()  ringvm_scopescount()
ringvm_evalinscope()  ringvm_passerror()  ringvm_hideerrormsg()
ringvm_callfunc()  list()  find()  min()  max()  insert()
sort()  reverse()  binarysearch()  sin()  cos()  tan()
asin()  acos()  atan()  atan2()  sinh()  cosh()
tanh()  exp()  log()  log10()  ceil()  floor()
fabs()  pow()  sqrt()  unsigned()  decimals()  murmur3hash()
fopen()  fclose()  fflush()  freopen()  tempfile()  tempname()
fseek()  ftell()  rewind()  fgetpos()  fsetpos()  clearerr()
feof()  ferror()  perror()  rename()  remove()  fgetc()
fgets()  fputc()  fputs()  ungetc()  fread()  fwrite()
dir()  read()  write()  fexists()  int2bytes()  float2bytes()
double2bytes()  bytes2int()  bytes2float()
bytes2double()  ismsdos()  iswindows()
iswindows64()  isunix()  ismacosx()  islinux()  isfreebsd()  isandroid()
windowsnl()  currentdir()  exefilename()  chdir()  exefolder()  loadlib()
closelib()  callgc()  varptr()  intvalue()  object2pointer()  pointer2object()
nullpointer()  space()  ptrcmp()  ring_state_init()
ring_state_runcode()  ring_state_delete()
ring_state_runfile()  ring_state_findvar()  ring_state_newvar()
ring_state_runobjectfile() ring_state_setvar()

Compiler Errors

  • Error (C1) : Error in parameters list, expected identifier
  • Error (C2) : Error in class name
  • Error (C3) : Unclosed control strucutre, ‘ok’ is missing
  • Error (C4) : Unclosed control strucutre, ‘end’ is missing
  • Error (C5) : Unclosed control strucutre, next is missing
  • Error (C6) : Error in function name
  • Error (C7) : Error in list items
  • Error (C8) : Parentheses ‘)’ is missing
  • Error (C9) : Brackets ‘]’ is missing
  • Error (C10) : Error in parent class name
  • Error (C11) : Error in expression operator
  • Error (C12) : No class definition
  • Error (C13) : Error in variable name
  • Error (C14) : Try/Catch miss the Catch keyword!
  • Error (C15) : Try/Catch miss the Done keyword!
  • Error (C16) : Error in Switch statement expression!
  • Error (C17) : Switch statement without OFF
  • Error (C18) : Missing closing brace for the block opened!
  • Error (C19) : Numeric Overflow!
  • Error (C20) : Error in package name
  • Error (C21) : Unclosed control strucutre, ‘again’ is missing
  • Error (C22) : Function redefinition, function is already defined!
  • Error (C23) : Using ‘(‘ after number!
  • Error (C24) : The parent class name is identical to the subclass name
  • Error (C25) : Trying to access the self reference after the object name”
  • Error (C26) : Class redefinition, class is already defined!

Runtime Errors

  • Error (R1) : Cann’t divide by zero !
  • Error (R2) : Array Access (Index out of range) !
  • Error (R3) : Calling Function without definition !
  • Error (R4) : Stack Overflow !
  • Error (R5) : Can’t access the list item, Object is not list !
  • Error (R6) : Variable is required
  • Error (R7) : Can’t assign to a string letter more than one character
  • Error (R8) : Variable is not a string
  • Error (R9) : Using exit command outside loops
  • Error (R10) : Using exit command with number outside the range
  • Error (R11) : error in class name, class not found!
  • Error (R12) : error in property name, property not found!
  • Error (R13) : Object is required
  • Error (R14) : Calling Method without definition !
  • Error (R15) : error in parent class name, class not found!
  • Error (R16) : Using braces to access unknown object !
  • Error (R17) : error, using ‘Super’ without parent class!
  • Error (R18) : Numeric Overflow!
  • Error (R19) : Calling function with less number of parameters!
  • Error (R20) : Calling function with extra number of parameters!
  • Error (R21) : Using operator with values of incorrect type
  • Error (R22) : Using loop command outside loops
  • Error (R23) : Using loop command with number outside the range
  • Error (R24) : Using uninitialized variable
  • Error (R25) : Error in package name, Package not found!
  • Error (R26) : Calling private method from outside the class
  • Error (R27) : Using private attribute from outside the class
  • Error (R28) : Using bad data type as step value
  • Error (R29) : Using bad data type in for loop
  • Error (R30) : parent class name is identical to child class name
  • Error (R31) : Trying to destory the object using the self reference
  • Error (R32) : The CALL command expect a variable contains string!
  • Error (R33) : Bad decimals number (correct range >= 0 and <=14) !
  • Error (R34) : Variable is required for the assignment operation
  • Error (R35) : Can’t create/open the file!
  • Error (R36) : The column number is not correct! It’s greater than the number of columns in the list
  • Error (R37) : Sorry, The command is not supported in this context
  • Error (R38) : Runtime Error in loading the dynamic library!
  • Error (R39) : Error occurred creating unique filename.

Environment Errors

  • Error (E1) : Caught SegFault
  • Error (E2) : Out of Memory
  • Error (E3) : Deleting scope while no scope!
  • Error (E4) : Long VM Instruction!

Language Grammar

Program —> {statement}

Statement —> ‘package’ <Identifier> { ‘.’ <Identifier> } [‘{‘ {statement} ‘}’] [‘end’|’endpackage’]

Statement —> ‘class’ <Identifier> [ ‘from’|’:’|’<’ <Identifier> ] [‘{‘ {statement} ‘}’][‘end’|’endclass’]

Statement —> ‘func’|’def’ <Identifier> [ParaList] [‘{‘ {statement} ‘}’][‘end’|’endfunc’]

Statement —> ‘import’ <Identifier> { ‘.’ <Identifier> }

Statement —> ‘private’

Statement —> ‘load’ <Literal>

Statement —> ‘loadsyntax’ <Literal>

Statement —> ‘changeringkeyword’ <OldKeyword> <NewKeyword>

Statement —> ‘changeringoperator’ <OldOperator> <NewOperator>

Statement —> ‘see’|’put’ <Expr>

Statement —> ‘give’|’get’ <Identifier>

Statement —> ‘if’ <Expr> [‘{‘] {statement} [ {‘but’|’elseif’ <Expr> {Statement} } ] [‘else’ {Statement} ] ‘ok’|’end’|’}’

Statement —> ‘Switch’ <Expr> [‘{‘] { ‘on’|’case’ <Expr> {statement} } [‘other’ {Statement} ] ‘off’|’end’|’}’

Statement —> ‘for’ <Identifier> ‘=’ <Expr> ‘to’ <Expr> [ ‘step’ <Expr> ] [‘{‘] {Statement} ‘next’|’end’|’}’

Statement —> ‘for’ <Identifier> ‘in’ <Expr> [ ‘step’ <Expr> ] [‘{‘] {statement} ‘next’|’end’|’}’

Statement —> ‘while’ <Expr> [‘{‘] {statement} ‘end’|’}’

Statement —> ‘do’ {statement} ‘again’ <Expr>

Statement —> ‘try’ {statement} [‘{‘] ‘catch’ {statement} ‘done’|’end’|’}’

Statement —> ‘return’ <Expr>

Statement —> ‘bye’

Statement —> ‘exit’

Statement —> ‘loop’

Statement —> <Expr>

Statement —> epslion

ParaList —> epslion

ParaList —> [‘(‘] <Identifier> [{ ‘,’ <Identifier> }] [‘)’]

Expr —> <LogicNot> [{ ‘and’|’or’ <LogicNot> }]

LogicNot –> [‘not’] <EqualOrNot>

EqualOrNot –> [ ‘=’|’!=’ ] <Compare>

Compare —> <BitOrXor> [ { ‘<’ | ‘>’ | ‘<=’ | ‘>=’ <BitOrXor> } ]

BitOrXor —> <BitAnd> [ { ‘|’ | ‘^’ <BitAnd> } ]

BitAnd —> <BitShift> [ { ‘&’ <BitShift> } ]

BitShift —> <Arithmetic> [ { ‘<<’ | ‘>>’ <Arithmetic> } ]

Arithmetic —> <Term> [ { ‘+’ | ‘-‘ <Term> } ]

Term —> <Range> [ { ‘*’ | ‘/’ | ‘%’ <Range> } ]

Range —> <Factor> [ ‘:’ <Factor> ]

Factor —> <Identifier> [ {Mixer} ] [ ‘=’ <Expr> ]

Factor —> <Number>

Factor —> <Literal>

Factor —> ‘:’ <Identifier>

Factor —> ‘-‘ <Expr>

Factor —> ‘(‘ <Expr> ‘)’

Factor —> <List>

Factor —> ‘new’ <Identifier>

Factor —> <AnonymousFunction>

Factor —> ‘call’ <identifier> { ‘.’ <Identifier> } ‘(‘ <Parameters> ‘)’

List —> ‘[‘ [ <Expr> { ‘,’ <Expr> } ] ‘]’

Mixer —> { ‘.’ <Identifier> }

Mixer —> ‘[‘ <Expr> ‘]’

Mixer —> ‘(‘ [ <Expr> [ { ‘,’ <Expr> }] ] ‘)’

Mixer —> ‘{‘ {Statement} ‘}’

AnonymousFunction —> ‘func’|’def’| [<ParaList>] ‘{‘ {Statement} ‘}’

Virtual Machine (VM) Instructions

Definitions :-

  • VM : Virtual Machine
  • Stack : VM Stack
  • IR : Instruction Register
  • PC : Program Counter
  • VP : Variable Pointer
  • Stack[nSize] : Last Item in the Stack (Last In - First Out)
  • VV : Variable Value (We have a Pointer to a variable, And we access this variable value)

(Stack and Variables)

Operation Description
  • ICO_PUSHC
 Add string from the IR to the stack
  • ICO_PUSHN
 Add number from the IR to the stack
  • ICO_PUSHV
 Replace VP in the stack[nSize] with the variable value
  • ICO_LOADADDRESS
 Read variable name from the IR, push VP to the stack
  • ICO_ASSIGNMENT
 Stack[nSize-1] VV = Stack[nSize] VV , POP Stack[nSize]
  • ICO_INC
 Increment Number in Stack[nSize] by 1
  • ICO_LOADAPUSHV
 The same as ICO_LOADADDRESS then ICO_PUSHV
  • ICO_NEWLINE
 Store new line number (debug info)
  • ICO_FREESTACK
 Remove all items from the stack , nSize = 0
  • ICO_FILENAME
 Store the source code file name (debug info)
  • ICO_FREELOADASCOPE
 Free the Scope List of the current Expression

(Jump)

Operation Description
  • ICO_JUMP
 Set PC to new value from the IR
  • ICO_JUMPZERO
 If Stack[nSize] is a number = 0 then Set PC to new value from the IR
  • ICO_JUMPFOR
 End of for loop
  • ICO_JUMPONE
 If Stack[nSize] is a number = 1 then Set PC to new value from the IR
  • ICO_JUMPZERO2
 As ICO_JUMPZERO but add 1 to the stack (required for many ‘AND’ conditions)
  • ICO_JUMPONE2
 As ICO_JUMPONE but add 1 to the stack (required for many ‘OR’ conditions)

(Compare)

Operation Description
  • ICO_LESSEQUAL
 If stack[nSize-1] <= stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize], set Stack[nSize-1] = 1 else set Stack[nSize-1] = 0
  • ICO_EQUAL
 If stack[nSize-1] = stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize], set Stack[nSize-1] = 1 else set Stack[nSize-1] = 0
  • ICO_LESS
 If stack[nSize-1] < stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize], set Stack[nSize-1] = 1 else set Stack[nSize-1] = 0
  • ICO_GREATER
 If stack[nSize-1] > stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize], set Stack[nSize-1] = 1 else set Stack[nSize-1] = 0
  • ICO_GREATEREQUAL
 If stack[nSize-1] >= stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize], set Stack[nSize-1] = 1 else set Stack[nSize-1] = 0
  • ICO_NOTEQUAL
 If stack[nSize-1] != stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize], set Stack[nSize-1] = 1 else set Stack[nSize-1] = 0

(Math)

Operation Description
  • ICO_SUM
 Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] + Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]
  • ICO_SUB
 Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] - Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]
  • ICO_MUL
 Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] * Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]
  • ICO_DIV
 Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] / Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]
  • ICO_MOD
 Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] % Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]
  • ICO_NEG
 Stack[nSize] = - Stack[nSize-1]
  • ICO_PLUSPLUS
 Stack[nSize] = Stack[nSize] + 1
  • ICO_MINUSMINUS
 Stack[nSize] = Stack[nSize] - 1

(Logic)

Operation Description
  • ICO_AND
 Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] && Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]
  • ICO_OR
 Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] || Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]
  • ICO_NOT
 Stack[nSize] = ! Stack[nSize]

(Lists)

Operation Description
  • ICO_LISTSTART
 Start New List in Temp. Memory
  • ICO_LISTITEM
 Add List Item
  • ICO_LISTEND
 End List
  • ICO_LOADINDEXADDRESS
 Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] VV [ Stack[nSize] ] , POP stack[nSize]

(Functions)

Operation Description
  • ICO_LOADFUNC
 Find function
  • ICO_CALL
 Call function
  • ICO_RETURN
 Return from function
  • ICO_RETNULL
 Return NULl from function
  • ICO_RETFROMEVAL
 Return after eval()
  • ICO_RETITEMREF
 Return the list item reference - not the value
  • ICO_NEWFUNC
 Start new function
  • ICO_BLOCKFLAG
 Flag to determine where to jump later (after ICO_RETURN)
  • ICO_FUNCEXE
 Start executing function
  • ICO_ENDFUNCEXE
 End function execution
  • ICO_ANONYMOUS
 Anonymous function

(User Interface)

Operation Description
  • ICO_PRINT
 Print value to the standard output
  • ICO_GIVE
 Get input from the keyboard

(End Program/Loop)

Operation Description
  • ICO_BYE
 End execution of VM
  • ICO_EXITMARK
 Place to exit to from a loop
  • ICO_POPEXITMARK
 Remove exit mark
  • ICO_EXIT
 Break from one loop or more
  • ICO_LOOP
 Continue to next loop

(For Better Performance)

Operation Description
  • ICO_PUSHP
 Push pointer to the stack
  • ICO_INCP
 Increment variable value using pointer
  • ICO_PUSHPV
 Push value of variable using variable pointer
  • ICO_INCJUMP
 Increment then jump
  • ICO_INCPJUMP
 Increment using pointer then jump
  • ICO_JUMPVARLENUM
 Jump if variable value is <= numeric value
  • ICO_JUMPVARPLENUM
 Jump if variable value (using pointer) <= numeric value
  • ICO_LOADFUNCP
 Push function pointer
  • ICO_PUSHPLOCAL
 Push pointer to local variable
  • ICO_INCLPJUMP
 Increment value using pointer to local variable then jump
  • ICO_JUMPVARLPLENUM
 Jump if the variable value (using pointer) <= numeric value
  • ICO_INCPJUMPSTEP1
 Increment value using variable pointer then jump (for loop step = 1)
  • ICO_JUMPVARPLENUMSTEP1
 Increment value using variable pointer then jump (for loop step = 1)

(Try-Catch-Done)

Operation Description
  • ICO_TRY
 Start try region
  • ICO_DONE
 End try region

(Duplicate and Range)

Operation Description
  • ICO_DUPLICATE
 Duplicate stack value
  • ICO_RANGE
 Create list from value to value

(OOP)

Operation Description
  • ICO_NEWOBJ
 Create new object, get class name from the IR, push object pointer to the stack.
  • ICO_SETSCOPE
 Called after creating new object, set the active scope to be the object scope.
  • ICO_LOADSUBADDRESS
 Get object attribute, push the pointer to the stack.
  • ICO_LOADMETHOD
 Find object method
  • ICO_AFTERCALLMETHOD
 Used after calling a method - normal case
  • ICO_AFTERCALLMETHOD2
 Used after calling a method - second case
  • ICO_NEWCLASS
 Start new class region
  • ICO_BRACESTART
 Open brace
  • ICO_BRACEEND
 End brace
  • ICO_IMPORT
 Import package
  • ICO_PRIVATE
 start private attributes region
  • ICO_SETPROPERTY
 set attribute value - check for setter.
  • ICO_CALLCLASSINIT
 call call init() method.

(Other)

Operation Description
  • ICO_SETREFERENCE
 Copy by reference
  • ICO_KILLREFERENCE
 Remove reference
  • ICO_ASSIGNMENTPOINTER
 Determine the left side variable
  • ICO_BEFOREEQUAL
 Determine operators like += , -= , ... etc

(Bitwise Operators)

Operation Description
  • ICO_BITAND
 Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] & Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]
  • ICO_BITOR
 Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] | Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]
  • ICO_BITXOR
 Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] ^ Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]
  • ICO_BITNOT
 Stack[nSize] = ! Stack[nSize]
  • ICO_BITSHL
 Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] << Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]
  • ICO_BITSHR
 Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] >> Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]

(For Step)

Operation Description
  • ICO_STEPNUMBER
 Determine step number in for loop
  • ICO_POPSTEP
 POP step number from steps stack
  • ICO_LOADAFIRST
 Load the first address of variable name