Language Specification

In this chapter we will learn about

• Language keywords

• Language Functions

• Compiler Errors

• Runtime Errors

• Environment Errors

• Language Grammar

• Virtual Machine (VM) Instructions

Language Keywords

Keywords Count : 58

• again

• and

• but

• bye

• call

• case

• catch

• changeringkeyword

• changeringoperator

• class

• def

• do

• done

• else

• elseif

• end

• exit

• for

• from

• func

• get

• give

• if

• import

• in

• load

• loadsyntax

• loop

• new

• next

• not

• off

• ok

• on

• or

• other

• package

• private

• put

• return

• see

• step

• switch

• to

• try

• while

• endfunc

• endclass

• endpackage

• endif

• endfor

• endwhile

• endswitch

• endtry

• function

• endfunction

• break

• continue

Language Functions

Functions Count : 251

acos(x) ---> The principal value of the arc cosine of x, expressed in radians
add(List,Item)
addattribute(Object,cAttributeName|aAttributesList)
adddays(cDate,nDays) ---> Date from cDate and after nDays
addmethod(Object,cNewMethodName,cMethodName|AnonymousFunction)
addsublistsbyfastcopy(lFlag)
addsublistsbymove(lFlag)
ascii(character) ---> ASCII Code
asin(x) ---> The principal value of the arc sine of x, expressed in radians
assert(condition)
atan(x) ---> The principal value of the arc tangent of x, expressed in radians
atan2(y,x) ---> The principal arc tangent of y/x, in the interval [-pi,+pi] radians
attributes(object) ---> Returns a list contains the object attributes
binarysearch(List,ItemValue) ---> Item Index
binarysearch(List,ItemValue,nColumn) ---> Search in nColumn, returns the Item Index
bytes2double(cBytes) ---> nNumber
bytes2float(cBytes) ---> nNumber
bytes2int(cBytes) ---> nNumber
callgarbagecollector()
callgc()
ceil(x) ---> The smallest integer value greater than or equal to x
cfunctions() ---> a list contains functions names
char(ASCII Code) ---> character
chdir(cNewPath)
checkoverflow(lFlag)
classes() ---> a list contains classes names
classname(object) ---> Returns the object class name
clearerr(FileHandle)
clock() ---> The number of clock ticks from program start
clockspersecond() ---> Number of clocks in one second
closelib(pDLL)
copy(string,nCount) ---> string replicated nCount times
cos(x) ---> The cosine of an angle of x radians
cosh(x) ---> The hyperbolic cosine of x radians
currentdir() ---> String contains the path of the current directory
date() ---> String represent the date "dd/mm/yyyy"
dec(hexadecimal) ---> decimal
decimals(n) ---> Determine the decimals digits after the point in float/double numbers
del(list,index)
diffdays(cDate1,cDate2) ---> number of days (Date1 - Date2)
dir(cFolderPath) ---> List contains files & sub folders.
direxists(cDirPath) ---> returns 1 if the directory exists
double2bytes(nNumber) ---> cBytes
eval(cCode)
exefilename() ---> String contains the Ring executable file name
exefolder() ---> String contains the Ring executable path
exp(x) ---> The value of e raised to the xth power
fabs(x) ---> The absolute value of x
fclose(FileHandle)
feof(FileHandle) ---> returns 1 if EOF and 0 if not
ferror(FileHandle) ---> returns 1 if error and 0 if not
fexists(cFileName) ---> returns 1 if the file exists
fflush(FileHandle)
fgetc(FileHandle) ---> returns character or EOF
fgetpos(FileHandle) ---> position handle
fgets(FileHandle,nSize) ---> string
filename() ---> String contains the active source file name
find(List,ItemValue) ---> Item Index
find(List,ItemValue,nColumn) ---> Search in nColumn, returns the Item Index
find(List,ItemValue,nColumn,cAttribute) ---> Item Index
float2bytes(nNumber) ---> cBytes
floor(x) ---> The largest integer value less than or equal to x
fopen(cFileName,cMode) ---> FileHandle
fputc(FileHandle,cChar)
fputs(FileHandle,cString)
fread(FileHandle,nSize)
freopen(cFileName,cMode,file handle) ---> FileHandle
fseek(FileHandle,nOffset,nWhence) ---> zero if successful
fsetpos(FileHandle,PositionHandle)
ftell(FileHandle) ---> file position as number
functions() ---> a list contains functions names
fwrite(FileHandle,cString)
getarch() ---> cString (The name of the architecture of the Ring executable)
getattribute(oObject,cAttributeName) ---> Attribute Value
getchar() ---> Character
getfilesize(cFilePath) ---> nSize
getnumber() ---> Number
getpathtype(cPath) ---> nStatus
getpointer(pointer) ---> nAddress
getptr(pointer) ---> nAddress
getstring() ---> String
globals() ---> a list contains variables names in the global scope
hex(decimal) ---> hexadecimal
hex2str(Hexadecimal string) ---> string
importpackage(cPackageName)
input(nCount) ---> string
insert(List,Index,Item)
int2bytes(nNumber) ---> cBytes
intvalue(cVariableName)
isalnum(value) ---> 1 if the value is digit/letter or 0 if not
isalpha(value) ---> 1 if the value is a letter or 0 if not
isandroid() ---> Returns 1 if the operating system is Android, Returns 0 if it's not
isattribute(object,cAttributeName) ---> Bool
iscfunction(cFunctionName) ---> returns 1 if the C function is defined
isclass(cClassName) ---> returns 1 if the Class is defined
iscntrl(value) ---> 1 if the value is a control character or 0 if not
isdigit(value) ---> 1 if the value is a digit or 0 if not
isfreebsd() ---> Returns 1 if the operating system is FreeBSD, Returns 0 if it's not
isfunction(cFunctionName) ---> returns 1 if the Ring function is defined
isglobal(cVariableName) ---> returns 1 if the variable is defined in the global scope
isgraph(value) ---> 1 if the value can be printed (Except space) or 0 if not
islinux() ---> Returns 1 if the operating system is Linux, Returns 0 if it's not
islist(value) ---> 1 if the value is a list or 0 if not
islocal(cVariableName) ---> returns 1 if the variable is defined in the local scope
islower(value) ---> 1 if the value is lowercase letter or 0 if not
ismacosx() ---> Returns 1 if the operating system is Mac OS X, Returns 0 if it's not
ismethod(object,cMethodName) ---> Returns True if the object class contains the method
ismsdos() ---> Returns 1 if the operating system is MS-DOS, Returns 0 if it's not
isnull(value) ---> 1 if the value is NULL or 0 if not
isnumber(value) ---> 1 if the value is a number or 0 if not
isobject(variable) ---> Returns True if it's an object, False if it's not
ispackage(cPackageName) ---> returns 1 if the Package is defined
ispackageclass(cPackageName,cClassName) ---> returns 1 if the Class is defined
ispointer(vPara) ---> True|False
isprint(value) ---> 1 if the value occupies a printing position or 0 if not
isprivateattribute(object,cAttributeName) ---> lResult
isprivatemethod(object,cMethodName) ---> lResult
ispunct(value) ---> 1 if the value is a punctuation character or 0 if not
isspace(value) ---> 1 if the value is a white-space or 0 if not
isstring(value) ---> 1 if the value is a string or 0 if not
isunix() ---> Returns 1 if the operating system is Unix, Returns 0 if it's not
isupper(value) ---> 1 if the value is an uppercase alphabetic letter or 0 if not
iswindows() ---> Returns 1 if the operating system is Windows
iswindows64() ---> Returns 1 if the operating system is Windows64
isxdigit(value) ---> 1 if the value is a hexadecimal digit character or 0 if not
left(string,count) ---> Get characters starting from the left
len(string) ---> String length
len(List) ---> The list size
lines(string) ---> Number of lines inside the string
list(nSize) ---> aList
list(nRows,nCols) ---> aList
list2str(list) ---> string contains the list items
loadlib(cDLLFileName) ---> pDLL
locals() ---> a list contains the variables names in the current scope
log(x) ---> The natural logarithm of x (the base of e)
log(x,b) ---> The logarithm of x to the base of b
log10(x) ---> The common logarithm (base-10 logarithm) of x
lower(string) ---> convert string letters to lower c
max(nNumber1,nNumber) ---> Maximum number
max(aList) ---> Maximum number inside the list
memcpy(pDestinationPointer,cSourceString,nSize)
memorycopy(pDestinationPointer,cSourceString,nSize)
mergemethods(cClassNameDestination,cClassNameSource)
methods(object) ---> Returns a list contains the object methods
min(nNumber,nNumber2) ---> Minimum number
min(aList) ---> Minimum number inside the list
murmur3hash(cString,nNumber) ---> nNumber
newlist(nSize) ---> aList
newlist(nRows,nCols) ---> aList
nofprocessors() ---> nProcessors
nullpointer() ---> pPointer
nullptr() ---> pPointer
number(string) ---> Number
obj2ptr(List|Object) --> Low Level Object ( C Pointer )
object2pointer(List|Object) --> Low Level Object ( C Pointer )
objectid(object) ---> Returns the object id
packageclasses() cPackageName) ---> a list contains classes names inside the package
packagename() ---> Returns the package name of the latest successful import
packages() ---> a list contains packages names
perror(cErrorMessage)
pointer2object(Low Level Object) ---> List|Object
pointer2string(pointer,nStart,nCount) ---> cString
pointercompare(oObject1,oObject2) ---> lResult
pow(x,y) ---> x raised to the power of y
prevfilename() ---> String contains the previous source file name.
print(cString)
print2str(cString) ---> String
ptr2obj(Low Level Object) ---> List|Object
ptr2str(pointer,nStart,nCount) ---> cString
ptrcmp(oObject1,oObject2) ---> lResult
puts(cString)
raise(cErrorMessage)
random(x) ---> A random number in the range [0,x]
randomize(nNumber) ---> nNumber
read(cFileName) ---> String contains the file content
ref(aList|oObject) ---> List/Object reference
reference(aList|oObject) ---> List/Object reference
refcount(aList|oObject) ---> References Count
remove(cFileName)
rename(cOldFileName,cNewFileName) ---> Zero for Success or -1 for Error
reverse(List) ---> Reversed List
rewind(FileHandle)
right(string,count) ---> get characters starting from the right
ring_give(cVariable)
ring_see(cMessage)
ring_state_delete(oState)
ring_state_filetokens(oState,cRingFileName) ---> aTokens
ring_state_findvar(oState,cVariableName) ---> aVariableList
ring_state_init() ---> oState
ring_state_main(cRingFileName)
ring_state_mainfile(oState,cRingFileName)
ring_state_new() ---> oState
ring_state_newvar(oState,cVariableName) ---> aVariableList
ring_state_runcode(oState,cCode)
ring_state_runfile(oState,cRingFileName)
ring_state_runobjectfile(oState,cRingObjectFileName)
ring_state_scannererror(oState) ---> nStatus
ring_state_setvar(oState,cVariableName,Value)
ring_state_stringtokens(oState,cRingFileName)
ring_state_stringtokens(oState,cRingFileName,lCaseSensitive)
ringvm_callfunc(cFuncName)
ringvm_calllist() ---> List
ringvm_cfunctionslist() ---> List
ringvm_classeslist() ---> List
ringvm_codelist() ---> List
ringvm_evalinscope(nScope,cCode)
ringvm_fileslist() ---> List
ringvm_functionslist() ---> List
ringvm_genarray(aList)
ringvm_give(cVariableName)
ringvm_hideerrormsg(lStatus)
ringvm_info() ---> List of information about the VM structure
ringvm_ismempool() ---> lStatus (Can provide memory or not)
ringvm_memorylist() ---> List
ringvm_packageslist() ---> List
ringvm_passerror()
ringvm_runcode(cCode)
ringvm_scopescount() ---> nScopes
ringvm_see(cMessage)
ringvm_settrace(cCode)
ringvm_tracedata() ---> aDataList
ringvm_traceevent() ---> nTraceEvent
ringvm_tracefunc() ---> cCode
setattribute(oObject,cAttributeName,Value)
setpointer(pointer,nNewAddress)
setptr(pointer,nNewAddress)
shutdown(nStatus)
sin(x) ---> The sine of an angle of x radians
sinh(x) ---> The hyperbolic sine of x radians
sort(List) ---> Sorted List
sort(List,nColumn) ---> Sorted List based on nColumn
sort(List,nColumn,cAttribute) ---> Sorted List based on Object Attribute
space(nBytesCount) ---> String
sqrt(x) ---> The square root of x
srandom(x) ---> Initialize random number generator
str2hex(string) ---> hexadecimal string
str2hexcstyle(string) ---> hexadecimal string
str2list(string) ---> list contains the string lines
strcmp(cString1,cString2) ---> value = 0 if cString1 = cString2
string(number) ---> String
substr(string,substring) ---> the starting position of substring in string
substr(string,position)  ---> Get substring starting from position to end
substr(string,position,count)  ---> Get characters starting from position
substr(string,substring,newsubstring)  ---> Transformed string (Match case)
substr(string,substring,newsubstring,1) ---> Transformed string (Ignore case)
swap(aList,nItem1,nItem2)
sysget(cVariable)
sysset(cVariable,cValue) ---> Returns 1 for success and return 0 for failure
system(cCommand)
sysunset(cVariable) ---> Returns 1 for success and return 0 for failure
tan(x) ---> Tangent of an angle of x radians
tanh(x) ---> The hyperbolic tangent of x radians
tempfile() ---> FileHandle
tempname() ---> generated file name as string
time() ---> The system time as String
timelist() ---> List contains the time and date information.
trim(string) ---> Remove spaces from right and left
type(value) ---> The Type as String
ungetc(FileHandle,character)
unsigned(nNum1,nNum2,cOperator) ---> Perform operation using unsigned numbers
upper(string) ---> convert string letters to UPPER case
uptime() ---> nTime
variablepointer(cVariableName,cPointerType) ---> Low Level Object (C Pointer)
varptr(cVariableName,cPointerType) ---> Low Level Object (C Pointer)
version() ---> String contains the Ring version
windowsnl() ---> Returns a string contains CR+LF = CHAR(13) + CHAR(10)
write(cFileName,cString)

Compiler Errors

• Error (C1) : Error in parameters list, expected identifier

• Error (C2) : Error in class name

• Error (C3) : Unclosed control structure, ‘ok’ is missing

• Error (C4) : Unclosed control structure, ‘end’ is missing

• Error (C5) : Unclosed control structure, next is missing

• Error (C6) : Error in function name

• Error (C7) : Error in list items

• Error (C8) : Parentheses ‘)’ is missing

• Error (C9) : Brackets ‘]’ is missing

• Error (C10) : Error in parent class name

• Error (C11) : Error in expression operator

• Error (C12) : No class definition

• Error (C13) : Error in variable name

• Error (C14) : Try/Catch miss the Catch keyword!

• Error (C15) : Try/Catch miss the Done keyword!

• Error (C16) : Error in Switch statement expression!

• Error (C17) : Switch statement without OFF

• Error (C18) : Missing closing brace for the block opened!

• Error (C19) : Numeric Overflow!

• Error (C20) : Error in package name

• Error (C21) : Unclosed control structure, ‘again’ is missing

• Error (C22) : Function redefinition, function is already defined!

• Error (C23) : Using ‘(‘ after number!

• Error (C24) : The parent class name is identical to the subclass name

• Error (C25) : Trying to access the self reference after the object name

• Error (C26) : Class redefinition, class is already defined!

• Error (C27) : Syntax Error!

• Error (C28) : Expression is expected!

• Error (C29) : Braces are missing to define anonymous function!

• Error (S1) : Literal not closed!

• Warning (W1) : Duplication in file name

• Warning (W2) : The Compiler command ChangeRingKeyword requires two words as parameters

• Warning (W3) : Compiler command ChangeRingKeyword - Keyword not found !

• Warning (W4) : The Compiler command ChangeRingOperator requires two words as parameters

• Warning (W5) : Compiler command ChangeRingOperator - Operator not found !

• Warning (W6) : Using the EXIT command outside loop!”

• Warning (W7) : Using the LOOP command outside loop!”

Runtime Errors

• Error (R1) : Can’t divide by zero

• Error (R2) : Array Access (Index out of range)

• Error (R3) : Calling Function without definition

• Error (R4) : Stack Overflow

• Error (R5) : Can’t access the list item, Object is not list

• Error (R6) : Variable is required

• Error (R7) : Can’t assign to a string letter more than one character

• Error (R8) : Variable is not a string

• Error (R9) : Using exit command outside loops

• Error (R10) : Using exit command with number outside the range

• Error (R11) : Error in class name, class not found

• Error (R12) : Error in property name, property not found

• Error (R13) : Object is required

• Error (R14) : Calling Method without definition

• Error (R15) : Error in parent class name, class not found

• Error (R16) : Using braces to access unknown object

• Error (R17) : Error, using ‘Super’ without parent class

• Error (R18) : Numeric Overflow

• Error (R19) : Calling function with less number of parameters

• Error (R20) : Calling function with extra number of parameters

• Error (R21) : Using operator with values of incorrect type

• Error (R22) : Using loop command outside loops

• Error (R23) : Using loop command with number outside the range

• Error (R24) : Using uninitialized variable

• Error (R25) : Error in package name, Package not found

• Error (R26) : Calling private method from outside the class

• Error (R27) : Using private attribute from outside the class

• Error (R28) : Using bad data type as step value

• Error (R29) : Using bad data type in for loop

• Error (R30) : Parent class name is identical to child class name

• Error (R31) : Trying to destroy the object using the self reference

• Error (R32) : The CALL command expect a variable contains string

• Error (R33) : Bad decimals number (correct range >= 0 and <= 90)

• Error (R34) : Variable is required for the assignment operation

• Error (R35) : Can’t create/open the file

• Error (R36) : The column number is not correct! It’s greater than the number of columns in the list

• Error (R37) : Sorry, The command is not supported in this context

• Error (R38) : Runtime Error in loading the dynamic library

• Error (R39) : Error occurred creating unique filename

• Error (R40) : Numeric underflow

• Error (R41) : Invalid numeric string

• Error (R42) : Error in eval() function

• Error (R43) : The variable contains a protected value

• Error (R44) : Maximum nested Eval()

• Error (R45) : Variable is not a list

Environment Errors

• Error (E1) : Caught SegFault

• Error (E2) : Out of Memory

• Error (E3) : Deleting scope while no scope!

• Error (E4) : Long VM Instruction!

• Error (E5) : The file type is not correct - the VM expect a ring object file

• Error (E6) : The Ring Object File version is not correct!

• Error (E7) : Internal error in using sscanf() function!

• Error (E8) : Internal error in using fscanf() function!

Language Grammar

Program —> {statement}

Statement —> ‘package’ <Identifier> { ‘.’ <Identifier> } [‘{‘ {statement} ‘}’] [‘end’|’endpackage’]

Statement —> ‘class’ <Identifier> [ ‘from’|’:’|’<’ <Identifier> ] [‘{‘ {statement} ‘}’][‘end’|’endclass’]

Statement —> ‘func’|’def’|’function’ <Identifier> [ParaList] [‘{‘ {statement} ‘}’][‘end’|’endfunc’|’endfunction’]

Statement —> ‘import’ <Identifier> { ‘.’ <Identifier> }

Statement —> ‘private’

Statement —> ‘load’ [‘package’|’again’] <Literal>

Statement —> ‘loadsyntax’ <Literal>

Statement —> ‘changeringkeyword’ <OldKeyword> <NewKeyword>

Statement —> ‘changeringoperator’ <OldOperator> <NewOperator>

Statement —> ‘see’|’put’ <Expr>

Statement —> ‘give’|’get’ <Identifier>

Statement —> ‘if’ <Expr> [‘{‘] {statement} [ {‘but’|’elseif’ <Expr> {Statement} } ] [‘else’ {Statement} ] ‘ok’|’end’|’}’|’endif’

Statement —> ‘Switch’ <Expr> [‘{‘] { ‘on’|’case’ <Expr> {statement} } [‘other’ {Statement} ] ‘off’|’end’|’}’|’endswitch’

Statement —> ‘for’ <Identifier> ‘=’ <Expr> ‘to’ <Expr> [ ‘step’ <Expr> ] [‘{‘] {Statement} ‘next’|’end’|’}’|’endfor’

Statement —> ‘for’ <Identifier> ‘in’ <Expr> [ ‘step’ <Expr> ] [‘{‘] {statement} ‘next’|’end’|’}’|’endfor’

Statement —> ‘while’ <Expr> [‘{‘] {statement} ‘end’|’}’|’endwhile’

Statement —> ‘do’ {statement} ‘again’ <Expr>

Statement —> ‘try’ {statement} [‘{‘] ‘catch’ {statement} ‘done’|’end’|’}’|’endtry’

Statement —> ‘return’ <Expr>

Statement —> ‘bye’

Statement —> ‘exit’|’break’

Statement —> ‘loop’|’continue’

Statement —> <Expr>

Statement —> epsilon

ParaList —> epsilon

ParaList —> [‘(‘] <Identifier> [{ ‘,’ <Identifier> }] [‘)’]

Expr —> <LogicNot> [{ ‘and’|’or’ <LogicNot> }]

LogicNot –> [‘not’] <EqualOrNot>

EqualOrNot –> [ ‘=’|’!=’ ] <Compare>

Compare —> <BitOrXor> [ { ‘<’ | ‘>’ | ‘<=’ | ‘>=’ <BitOrXor> } ]

BitOrXor —> <BitAnd> [ { ‘|’ | ‘^’ <BitAnd> } ]

BitAnd —> <BitShift> [ { ‘&’ <BitShift> } ]

BitShift —> <Arithmetic> [ { ‘<<’ | ‘>>’ <Arithmetic> } ]

Arithmetic —> <Term> [ { ‘+’ | ‘-‘ <Term> } ]

Term —> <Range> [ { ‘*’ | ‘/’ | ‘%’ | ‘**’ | ‘^^’ <Range> } ]

Range —> <Factor> [ ‘:’ <Factor> ]

Factor —> <Identifier> [ {Mixer} ] [ ‘=’ <Expr> ]

Factor —> <Number>

Factor —> <Literal>

Factor —> ‘:’ <Identifier>

Factor —> ‘-‘ <Factor>

Factor —> ‘(‘ <Expr> ‘)’

Factor —> <List>

Factor —> ‘new’ [‘from’] <Identifier>

Factor —> <AnonymousFunction>

Factor —> ‘call’ <identifier> { ‘.’ <Identifier> } ‘(‘ <Parameters> ‘)’

List —> ‘[‘ [ <Expr> { ‘,’ <Expr> } ] ‘]’

Mixer —> { ‘.’ <Identifier> }

Mixer —> ‘[‘ <Expr> ‘]’

Mixer —> ‘(‘ [ <Expr> [ { ‘,’ <Expr> }] ] ‘)’

Mixer —> ‘{‘ {Statement} ‘}’

AnonymousFunction —> ‘func’|’def’|’function’ [<ParaList>] ‘{‘ {Statement} ‘}’

Virtual Machine (VM) Instructions

Definitions :-

• VM : Virtual Machine

• Stack : VM Stack

• IR : Instruction Register

• PC : Program Counter

• VP : Variable Pointer

• Stack[nSize] : Last Item in the Stack (Last In - First Out)

• VV : Variable Value (We have a Pointer to a variable, And we access this variable value)

(Stack and Variables)

Operation	Description
ICO_PUSHC	Add string from the IR to the stack
ICO_PUSHN	Add number from the IR to the stack
ICO_PUSHV	Replace VP in the stack[nSize] with the variable value
ICO_LOADADDRESS	Read variable name from the IR, push VP to the stack
ICO_ASSIGNMENT	Stack[nSize-1] VV = Stack[nSize] VV , POP Stack[nSize]
ICO_INC	Increment Number in Stack[nSize] by 1
ICO_LOADAPUSHV	The same as ICO_LOADADDRESS then ICO_PUSHV
ICO_NEWLINE	Store new line number (debug info)
ICO_FREESTACK	Remove all items from the stack , nSize = 0
ICO_FILENAME	Store the source code file name (debug info)
ICO_FREELOADASCOPE	Free the Scope List of the current Expression

(Jump)

Operation	Description
ICO_JUMP	Set PC to new value from the IR
ICO_JUMPZERO	If Stack[nSize] is a number = 0 then Set PC to new value from the IR
ICO_JUMPFOR	End of for loop
ICO_JUMPONE	If Stack[nSize] is a number = 1 then Set PC to new value from the IR
ICO_JUMPZERO2	As ICO_JUMPZERO but add 1 to the stack (required for many ‘AND’ conditions)
ICO_JUMPONE2	As ICO_JUMPONE but add 1 to the stack (required for many ‘OR’ conditions)

(Compare)

Operation	Description
ICO_LESSEQUAL	If stack[nSize-1] <= stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize], set Stack[nSize-1] = 1 else set Stack[nSize-1] = 0
ICO_EQUAL	If stack[nSize-1] = stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize], set Stack[nSize-1] = 1 else set Stack[nSize-1] = 0
ICO_LESS	If stack[nSize-1] < stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize], set Stack[nSize-1] = 1 else set Stack[nSize-1] = 0
ICO_GREATER	If stack[nSize-1] > stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize], set Stack[nSize-1] = 1 else set Stack[nSize-1] = 0
ICO_GREATEREQUAL	If stack[nSize-1] >= stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize], set Stack[nSize-1] = 1 else set Stack[nSize-1] = 0
ICO_NOTEQUAL	If stack[nSize-1] != stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize], set Stack[nSize-1] = 1 else set Stack[nSize-1] = 0

(Math)

Operation	Description
ICO_SUM	Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] + Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]
ICO_SUB	Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] - Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]
ICO_MUL	Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] * Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]
ICO_DIV	Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] / Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]
ICO_MOD	Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] % Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]
ICO_POW	Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] ^ Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]
ICO_NEG	Stack[nSize] = - Stack[nSize-1]
ICO_PLUSPLUS	Stack[nSize] = Stack[nSize] + 1
ICO_MINUSMINUS	Stack[nSize] = Stack[nSize] - 1

(Logic)

Operation	Description
ICO_AND	Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] && Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]
ICO_OR	Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] || Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]
ICO_NOT	Stack[nSize] = ! Stack[nSize]

(Lists)

Operation	Description
ICO_LISTSTART	Start New List in Temp. Memory
ICO_LISTITEM	Add List Item
ICO_LISTEND	End List
ICO_LOADINDEXADDRESS	Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] VV [ Stack[nSize] ] , POP stack[nSize]

(Functions)

Operation	Description
ICO_LOADFUNC	Find function
ICO_CALL	Call function
ICO_RETURN	Return from function
ICO_RETNULL	Return NULL from function
ICO_RETFROMEVAL	Return after eval()
ICO_RETITEMREF	Return the list item reference - not the value
ICO_NEWFUNC	Start new function
ICO_BLOCKFLAG	Flag to determine where to jump later (after ICO_RETURN)
ICO_FUNCEXE	Start executing function
ICO_ENDFUNCEXE	End function execution
ICO_ANONYMOUS	Anonymous function
ICO_FREETEMPLISTS	Delete temp. lists

(User Interface)

Operation	Description
ICO_PRINT	Print value to the standard output
ICO_GIVE	Get input from the keyboard

(End Program/Loop)

Operation	Description
ICO_BYE	End execution of VM
ICO_EXITMARK	Place to exit to from a loop
ICO_POPEXITMARK	Remove exit mark
ICO_EXIT	Break from one loop or more
ICO_LOOP	Continue to next loop

(For Better Performance)

Operation	Description
ICO_PUSHP	Push pointer to the stack
ICO_INCP	Increment variable value using pointer
ICO_PUSHPV	Push value of variable using variable pointer
ICO_INCJUMP	Increment then jump
ICO_INCPJUMP	Increment using pointer then jump
ICO_JUMPVARLENUM	Jump if variable value is <= numeric value
ICO_JUMPVARPLENUM	Jump if variable value (using pointer) <= numeric value
ICO_LOADFUNCP	Push function pointer
ICO_PUSHPLOCAL	Push pointer to local variable
ICO_INCLPJUMP	Increment value using pointer to local variable then jump
ICO_JUMPVARLPLENUM	Jump if the variable value (using pointer) <= numeric value
ICO_INCPJUMPSTEP1	Increment value using variable pointer then jump (for loop step = 1)
ICO_JUMPVARPLENUMSTEP1	Increment value using variable pointer then jump (for loop step = 1)
ICO_LEN	Remove list from the stack and push the list size

(Try-Catch-Done)

Operation	Description
ICO_TRY	Start try region
ICO_DONE	End try region

(Duplicate and Range)

Operation	Description
ICO_DUPLICATE	Duplicate stack value
ICO_RANGE	Create list from value to value

(OOP)

Operation	Description
ICO_NEWOBJ	Create new object, get class name from the IR, push object pointer to the stack.
ICO_SETSCOPE	Called after creating new object, set the active scope to be the object scope.
ICO_LOADSUBADDRESS	Get object attribute, push the pointer to the stack.
ICO_LOADMETHOD	Find object method
ICO_AFTERCALLMETHOD	Used after calling a method - normal case
ICO_AFTERCALLMETHOD2	Used after calling a method - second case
ICO_NEWCLASS	Start new class region
ICO_BRACESTART	Open brace
ICO_BRACEEND	End brace
ICO_IMPORT	Import package
ICO_PRIVATE	start private attributes region
ICO_SETPROPERTY	set attribute value - check for setter.
ICO_CALLCLASSINIT	call class init() method.

(Other)

Operation	Description
ICO_SETREFERENCE	Copy by reference
ICO_KILLREFERENCE	Remove reference
ICO_ASSIGNMENTPOINTER	Determine the left side variable
ICO_BEFOREEQUAL	Determine operators like += , -= , … etc
ICO_EXTRAPARA	More parameters for the next VM instruction

(Bitwise Operators)

Operation	Description
ICO_BITAND	Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] & Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]
ICO_BITOR	Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] | Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]
ICO_BITXOR	Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] ^ Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]
ICO_BITNOT	Stack[nSize] = ! Stack[nSize]
ICO_BITSHL	Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] << Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]
ICO_BITSHR	Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] >> Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]

(For Step)

Operation	Description
ICO_STEPNUMBER	Determine step number in for loop
ICO_POPSTEP	POP step number from steps stack
ICO_LOADAFIRST	Load the first address of variable name

(Custom Global Scope)

Operation	Description
ICO_NEWGLOBALSCOPE	Start new custom global scope - used by ‘load package’ command
ICO_ENDGLOBALSCOPE	End of custom global scope - used by ‘load package’ command
ICO_SETGLOBALSCOPE	Set the current global scope